The Path of Flames: Understanding and Responding to Fatal Wildfires

Description:

The Path of Flames: Understanding and Responding to Fatal Wildfires is an edited volume covering the complexities of response and recovery issues relative to catastrophic wildfires.

As wildfires become more frequent throughout the world—and the loss of life greater, especially among residents trapped in the path of the flames—it is essential that agencies in fire-prone areas understand the complexity of the response as it relates to finding and identifying the remains of those who perished. While covering wildfire dynamics, risks for vulnerable populations, and the emergency response to wildfires, this book focuses largely on the recovery of human remains within the context of the overall response to mass disasters resulting from wildfires. As such, search protocols, staffing needs, pre-event coordination and organization, and logistical support are addressed. The scientific basis for understanding how fire will affect human remains—as well as how the level of destruction can be interpreted—is also addressed.

Recognizing the multidisciplinary nature of the field, this volume covers forensic issues relating to the recovery of remains, forensic anthropology, DNA analysis, forensic odontology, and forensic pathology. The book also includes contributions from international wildfire response professionals looking at global best practices in wildfire response and human remains recovery. Specifically, several chapters cover the lessons learned from the devasting Camp Fire of 2018 in California that led to the deaths of 85 people. The Camp Fire burned nearly 19,000 structures and was ultimately the most destructive—and deadly—in California’s history.

The Path of Flames is a one-of-a-kind reference that serves as a valuable resource for professionals working in the areas of emergency services, search and rescue, law enforcement, fire service, disaster planning and response, victim recovery and identification, and mass disaster and mass fatality response.

Table of contents :

Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
Contents
Foreword
List of Contributors
Section I OVERVIEW OF WILDFIRES AND WILDFIRE FATALITIES
Chapter 1 Wildfires: Introduction, Impact, Policy, and Planning
1.1 International Factors
1.1.1 The Mediterranean Region
1.1.2 North America
1.1.3 Australia
1.2 The History of Wildfires in the Western US in the 20th/21st Century
1.2.1 Deadly Wildfires in California
1.3 Cost of Fire Suppression, Evacuation, and Recovery
1.3.1 Future Response to Climate Change
1.4 This Volume: Importance of Interdisciplinary Planning and Responses
Chapter 2 Fatal Wildland Fires
2.1 Introduction: Reconstruction and Modeling
2.2 Fuels
2.3 Ignition Sources
2.4 Wildland Fire Development and Spread
2.4.1 Weather Data
2.5 Modeling of Wildland Fires
2.6 WUI Fires
Chapter 3 An International Perspective on Fatal Wildfires
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Landscape Fire Fatalities around the Globe
3.3 Firefighter Fatalities in Landscape Fires around the World
3.4 Civilian Fatalities in Landscape Fires around the World
3.5 A Statistical Look at These Accidents
3.6 Discussion
3.6.1 Issues in the Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI)
3.6.2 A Holistic View of the Reasons behind Fire Disasters
3.7 Conclusions
3.7.1 The Future
Section II WILDFIRE MANAGEMENT RESPONSE
Chapter 4 Incident Command System: Resolving a Clash of Cultures
4.1 Incident Command System: Structure and Responsibility
4.1.1 Case Study: The CZU Lightning Complex Fire Event
4.2 Unified Command in the CZU Fire
4.3 Concluding Comments
Chapter 5 Incident Command (IC) Role in Coordination (Logistics and Politics)—International Perspective
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Command, Control, and Coordination Defined
5.2.1 Command
5.2.2 Control
5.2.3 Coordination
5.3 CCC Systems in the International Context
5.4 The Cluster System
5.5 Challenges Present in International Command, Control, and Coordination
5.5.1 Involvement of Foreign Militaries in Domestic Relief, Response, and Recovery Operations
5.5.2 Image of “Weakness” among the Public or by the International Community
5.5.3 Protection of State Sovereignty
5.6 Global Examples of Incident Command and Coordination Systems
5.6.1 The Incident Command System (ICS)
5.6.2 The Coordinated Incident Management System (CIMS) (New Zealand)
5.7 The Australasian Inter-Service Incident Management System (AIIMS) (Australia)
5.7.1 The British Columbia Emergency Response Management System (BCERMS) (British Columbia, Canada)
5.7.2 Disaster Response Command System (Sistem Komando Penanganan Darurat Bencana—SKPDB) (Indonesia)
5.8 Conclusion
Chapter 6 Law Enforcement Response to Wildfire
6.1 Law Enforcement Incident Response to Wildfire
6.1.1 Phase 1: In the Face of Fire
6.1.2 Phase 2: Beginning of Recovery
6.1.3 Phase 3: Repopulation
6.2 Issue of Overlapping Multiple Incidents
6.3 Tracking for Missing/Unaccounted-for Persons
6.4 Lessons Learned
6.5 Conclusions
Chapter 7 Organization of the Fire Response: Establishing Priorities and the Future of Wildfire Management
7.1 Emergency Management and Wildfires
7.1.1 Incident Command System in Wildfires
7.1.2 Incident Management Teams
7.1.3 Unified Command
7.2 Cooperative Effort in Wildfire Management and Containment
7.2.1 Mutual Aid
7.2.2 Weight of Response
7.2.3 Role of Cooperators and Cooperating Agencies
7.2.4 Emergency Operation Centers (EOCs)
7.2.5 Evacuations
7.2.6 Containment
7.3 Recovery and Completion
7.3.1 Damage Inspections
Chapter 8 Fire Investigation Overview
8.1 The Fundamentals of the Investigative Process
8.2 Tools and Equipment
8.3 The Fire Investigation Team
8.4 Starting the Investigation
8.5 Firefighting Efforts That Affect the Investigation
8.6 Scene Examination/Excavation
8.7 Fire Effects/Burn Patterns
8.7.1 Documentation
8.8 The Report
8.8.1 Wildfire Investigations as It Relates to Origin and Cause
8.9 Conclusions
Section III MASS FATALITY RESPONSE
Chapter 9 Human Behavior in Fire as Evidenced by Wildfire Fatalities
9.1 Human Behavior in the Face of Fire
9.1.1 Evacuation Research in Structural Fires
9.1.2 Wildfire Evacuation Behavior
9.2 Camp Fire Observations: Room Location with Highest Recovery Rates
9.3 Discussion
9.4 Conclusion: Impact on Recovery
Chapter 10 How Human Bodies Burn: The Process of Thermal Damage, Body Movement, and Shifting Fuel Loads
10.1 Initial Conditions
10.2 Damage by Surrounding Fuel Load
10.2.1 Superficial Changes and Body Movement
10.2.2 Soft Tissue Loss and Bone Damage
10.2.3 Deep Tissue and Bone Loss
10.2.4 Alterations to the Pattern of Thermal Damage
10.3 Self-Sustained Burn Damage
10.4 Typical Appearance of Wildfire Bodies
10.5 Body Location in Structures and Problematic Search Techniques
10.6 Differentiating Wildfire Damage from Pre-Existing Cremations Stored in the Home
10.7 Conclusion
Chapter 11 Deployment Strategies for SAR/USAR Teams
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Types of Search and Rescue Teams
11.3 Fundamentals of SAR Strategy
11.4 Search and Recovery Training and Wildfire Training
11.5 Mutual Aid for SAR/USAR in the Case of Wildfire
11.6 Search and Rescue Team Deployment in Wildfires
11.7 SAR Team Support
11.8 Lessons Learned from Recent Wildfires
Chapter 12 Search and Recovery Protocols for Victims of Large-Scale Wildfires
12.1 Current Protocols for Recovery of Fatal Fire Victims
12.1.1 Fatal Fire Search and Recovery Methods
12.2 Modified Protocols for Search and Recovery of Wildfire Victims
12.2.1 Wildfire Fatality Search and Recovery Methods
12.2.2 Search Organization
12.2.3 Recovery Operations
12.3 Comparison of Protocols for Search and Recovery of Fatal Fire Victims
12.4 Conclusion: Lessons Learned from the 2018 Camp Fire Recovery Effort and Subsequent Fires
Chapter 13 To Be Ready: Preparations for Fatal Wildfire Recovery Operations
13.1 Identification of Staffing Possibilities
13.2 Deployment Expectations
13.3 Hazards Expected in the Field
13.4 Equipment and Personal Supplies
13.5 Regional Preparation
13.6 Conclusion
Section IV POST-RECOVERY PROCESSES FOLLOWING A MASS FATALITY
Chapter 14 Morgue Operations during a Mass Fatality Event
14.1 Preparation
14.2 Temporary versus Permanent Morgue Sites
14.3 Routine Work during an Event
14.4 What Are the Morgue Facility Needs during an Event?
14.4.1 Admitting Station
14.4.2 Receiving Station
14.4.3 Screening/Triage
14.4.4 Documentation Station
14.4.5 Print Station
14.4.6 Pathology Station/Room
14.4.7 Anthropology Station/Room
14.4.8 Odontology Station
14.4.9 DNA Station
14.4.10 Final Holding Station
14.4.11 Final Identification Review
14.4.12 After Care Station
14.4.13 Final Release Station
14.5 Case Study: Morgue Stations for the Camp Fire Victims
14.6 Documentation
14.7 Issues Specific to Wildfire Deaths
14.7.1 Media
14.7.2 The Standard for Identification
14.7.3 Dignity
14.7.4 Teamwork
14.8 Conclusions
Chapter 15 Role of the Forensic Pathologist in the Wake of a Fatal Wildfire
15.1 Introduction: Role of the Forensic Pathologist
15.2 Major Questions Addressed by the Forensic Pathologist: Specific Challenges with Conflagration
15.3 Basic Autopsy Procedures
15.4 Specific Challenges More in Depth—Identification
15.5 Specific Challenges More in Depth—Alive at the Time of the Fire?
15.6 Final Words
Chapter 16 Forensic Odontology in the Identification of Wildfire Victims
16.1 Forensic Odontology and the Camp Fire: Dealing with Disaster
16.1.1 Postmortem Dentition
16.1.2 Antemortem Records
16.1.3 Comparison of Postmortem and Antemortem Records
16.2 Lessons Learned
16.3 The Path Forward
Chapter 17 Anthropological Responsibilities in Post-Recovery Analysis
17.1 Circumstances of the Camp Fire Morgue Analysis
17.2 Morgue Processing of Wildfire Decedents
17.3 Anthropological Considerations
17.3.1 Human/Nonhuman/Non-osseous Material
17.3.2 Material for Positive Identification
17.3.3 Incomplete Recovery
17.3.4 Split Recovery
17.3.5 Commingled Recovery
17.4 Lessons Learned
17.4.1 Pace of Analysis
17.4.2 Importance of Locations
17.4.3 Limitations of Available Information
17.4.4 Separation of Commingled Remains
17.4.5 Value of Small Bones
17.4.6 Importance of Teamwork and Preparation
17.5 Areas for Future Research
Chapter 18 A Practical Guide for Implementation of Rapid DNA Identification in Mass Fatality Events: Lessons Learned from the 2018 Camp Fire
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Introduction to Rapid DNA Identification
18.3 Introduction to the 2018 Camp Fire
18.4 Rapid DNA Processing of Unidentified Human Remains during the Camp Fire
18.5 Victim Identification Based on Rapid DNA Results
18.6 Integration of Rapid DNA Analysis with Conventional Identification Modalities
18.7 Conclusions
Chapter 19 Operation Northleigh—the Grenfell Tower Disaster Victim Identification Process
19.1 Description of the Incident
19.2 The INTERPOL Disaster Victim Identification Guide
19.3 Overview of the Operation Northleigh Mortuary Process
19.4 Operation Northleigh Forensic Anthropology Protocols
19.5 Forensic Anthropology Unique Reference Number (URN) Classification System
19.6 Forensic Anthropology Standard Operating Protocols
19.7 Preliminary Anthropology Assessment
19.8 Case Document Review
19.9 INTERPOL DVI Appendices
19.10 Forensic Anthropology Examination
19.11 Biological Profile
19.12 Age-at-Death
19.13 Sex
19.14 Ancestry
19.15 Stature
19.16 Skeletal Variation and Individuating Features
19.17 Thermal Damage
19.18 Attribution of Human Remains
19.19 Disassociation of Human Remains
19.20 Reassociation of Human Remains
19.21 Calculation of Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI)
19.22 Repatriation
19.23 Cultural and Religious Considerations
19.24 Conclusion
Section V THE IMPACT OF WILDFIRES
Chapter 20 Demographics and Locational Analyses of Wildfire Victims
20.1 Introduction
20.2 The Risk of WUI Residential Development
20.2.1 Demographics and Geographic Distribution of the Fatalities
20.3 Social Networks and Connections of Camp Fire Victims
20.3.1 Case Studies from the Camp Fire
20.4 Conclusion
Chapter 21 Demographic Vulnerabilities and Wildfire Fatalities
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Materials and Methods
21.2.1 Pre- and Post-1990 Fatal California Wildfires
21.2.2 Australian Black Saturday Bushfires Fatalities
21.2.3 Missing Data
21.3 Results
21.3.1 Recent (1990–2020) California Wildfire Fatalities
21.3.2 Early (1933–89) and Recent California Wildfire Fatalities
21.3.3 Australian Black Saturday Bushfires and Recent California Wildfire Fatalities
21.4 Discussion, Comparisons, and Limitations
21.4.1 Age
21.4.2 Sex
21.4.3 Societal Disability and Physical Impairment
21.4.4 Some Social Factors
21.4.5 Firefighters
21.4.6 Limitations
21.5 Summary and Conclusions
Chapter 22 Psychological Effects of Mass Disasters on First Responders
22.1 Introduction: First Responders and Mass Disasters
22.2 Who Are the First Responders in Large-Scale Disasters?
22.3 Overview of Psychological Impacts of Disasters on First Responders
22.4 How Disaster Response Work Impacts First Responders
22.5 Awareness
22.5.1 Ethical and Legal and Considerations
22.6 How First Responders Are Impacted by the Stress of Disaster Work
22.6.1 The Compassion Fatigue Continuum
22.6.2 Stress Encountered from Work Conditions: Burnout
22.6.3 Minimum Standards for Preparing Responders
22.6.4 Special Considerations for Volunteer Responders
22.6.5 Barriers to Obtaining Help for Psychological Impacts
of Disaster Work
22.7 Ongoing and Future Opportunities
22.8 Conclusion
Chapter 23 Concluding Thoughts and Lessons Learned
23.1 Preparation
23.2 Collaboration
23.3 Open Lines of Communication
23.4 Changing Worldview of First and Last Responder
Index