Humans and Electricity: Understanding Body Electricity and Applications

Description:

Humans are electric beings. We are managed, monitored, and stimulated electrically. This textbook provides students and practitioners with a solid foundation and understanding of human electricity and the work currently being done to further develop electrical signals for medical purposes and related goals. The book introduces the fundamentals of how biological systems generate electrical signals, covering a wide range of biomedical engineering topics including bioelectricity, biomedical signals, neural engineering, and brain-computer interface. The book is presented in three sections: Part I explains how electrical signals and impulses manage the human body; Part II examines the kinds of electrical signals from the human body and how they are monitored, controlled, and used; Part III looks at clinical use of electrical stimulation toward the human body and how they are being developed for interventions in medicine. The book is also a valuable professional reference for practicing engineers and scientists.

• Explains humans as electric beings who are managed, monitored, and stimulated electrically;
• Deals with the electricity of major human organs;
• Covers a wide range of biomedical engineering topics

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Preface

Humans are electric beings, which is the central concept I hope to explain about the human body by writing this book.
As a biomedical engineer focused on electrical engineering, I have worked on studies and projects developing newer technologies by contacting human bodies with electrical means, intelligently measuring electrical signals, and generating diagnostically useful information with these measured signals, as well as other studies inversely related to efficiently delivering electrical signals to the human body to recover disabled electrical systems. And, always, the first step was understanding how they are working electrically for the tasks within the body. These experiences guided me smoothly to conclude that humans are electric beings. For those who feel this is too provocative, at least humans can be recognized as electrical beings.

Humans are managed by their nervous system, and the signals and their processing in the nervous system are electrical. Humans are “thinking” beings through the brain, and the brain is the central processing unit operating by electrical pulses within the body. Humans are “living” beings by the heart, which is accurately controlled temporally and spatially by its conduction of electrical pulses. Humans are “behavioral” beings by all parts of the muscles. Precisely connected electrical networks control the muscles, whether we are threading a needle or lifting a heavy load. Humans are “sensing” beings through our eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and many kinds of receptors distributed throughout external and internal body surfaces. All these sensing organs and receptors produce electrical signals and transmit them toward the brain to interface humans with internal and external environments. Humans exist by electrical signals and systems that control the body’s functions.

Since electrical signals and systems manage humans, it is unsurprising that their behaviors are being monitored electrically outward. Electrical monitoring is the easiest and most appropriate way to find any abnormality in the electrical working body functions. After Einthoven’s first electrocardiogram application for medical purposes, attached electrodes measured many electrical signals from the body. They are now widely used in clinics as convenient, noninvasive, cost-effective diagnostic methods. These electrical signals include signals from the heart, brain, muscles, retina, nerves, eyes, ears, and so on. By recording and analyzing these electrical signals, we can immediately monitor how they work and find any abnormalities. These are very similar to the standard approach of an electrical engineer using an oscilloscope to find any malfunctions in electrical circuits or systems. We can consider humans as electrical beings, similar to any electrical circuit system that can be electrically monitored.

Recovering normal function is possible by applying electrical stimulations in some abnormally working organs, as we fix many electrical circuits and systems by adding or blocking electrical signals. Since the successful introduction of cardiac pacemakers as a standard treatment for too slowly beating hearts, electrical stimulation is rising as the efficient therapeutic method for recovering any electrically caused malfunction or disorder. This approach also deals with brain, muscle, and nerve problems. Electrical stimulation is now vconsidered the third therapeutic method in addition to pharmaceutical and surgical treatment. Its minimal side effects are very contrasting to inevitably accompanying adverse effects in many medications. The possibility of modulating human functions externally by electrical stimulations accomplishes humans as complete electrical beings that can communicate with the environment bidirectionally from the body and toward the body. Humans are electric beings managed, monitored, and modulated by electrical signals.

The outer world of the human body has evolved toward the electrically connected world. Data and information are coming and going quickly throughout many electrical units through wired and wireless communication, like computers, smartphones, healthcare devices, and medical instruments. If humans are electrical beings that can be interfaced electrically like other electrical systems, humans can be connected to the environment more seamlessly. Understanding that humans are electric gives readers an extended perspective on integrating humans with the environment for medical purposes or other goals.

This book is composed of three parts. After the introduction overviewing and summarizing related historical progress, Part I deals with how electrical signals manage the human body. This part includes basic units of human electricity, electric potentials at rest and action, receptor potentials, and conduction of electrical potentials. Many of these parts are related to electrophysiology, but I have tried to explain most of the phenomena from an electrical engineering point of view. Part II deals with the kinds of electrical signals the human body monitors and how they are applied. Electrical signals from the heart and the brain are the most representative bioelectrical signals. And there are various kinds of electrical signals originating from nerves and muscles. In addition to the ordinary uses of bioelectrical signals for diagnostic purposes, I have included using these signals for brain-computer interface and human identification and authentication. Part III deals with electrical stimulation methods used in the medical domain and actively being developed for increased performance. Cardiac pacemakers and defibrillators have become indispensable medical therapeutic methods for resuscitating hearts. Deep brain stimulation took a significant position in treating movement disorders and extended its application domain to treating brain-related conditions. Electrical signals are now modulating many kinds of nerves working for specialized functions. Muscles of decreased performance are stimulated directly with electricity to recover their functions. Finally, I have included the health-related effects of electricity and electromagnetic fields, not to dismiss any possible adverse effects of providing electricity to humans.

These three parts and each chapter have their engineering and scientific depth and width. Since this book provides an overall view of the human body and electricity, it is most suitable as a text for graduate students majoring in biomedical engineering and for upper-undergraduate students majoring in electrical engineering. I thank the many people I have met throughout my career when collaborating on studies and projects. My colleagues in the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Seoul National University College of Medicine have motivated and encouraged me to write this book. Many of my students also supported me in writing and preparing materials for this book. Finally, I want to dedicate this book to my lady Mikyoung who shared her whole life with me so that I can develop my career successfully and write this book with all my effort up to this moment.

Seoul, Korea (Republic of) Kwang Suk Park

Table of contents :
Preface
Contents
1: Introduction
1 Electricity and Magnetism
1.1 Generation of Electric Field from Electric Charges
1.1.1 Gauss´s Law of Electricity
1.2 Generation of Electric Field by Time-Varying Magnetic Field
1.2.1 Faraday´s Law of Induction
1.3 Generation of Magnetic Field from the Magnets
1.3.1 Gauss´s Law of Magnetism
1.4 Generation of Magnetic Field from the Current
1.4.1 Ampere-Maxwell´s Law for Conduction Current
1.5 Generation of Magnetic Field by Varying Electric Field
1.5.1 Ampere-Maxwell´s Law
1.6 Maxwell Equations
2 History of Electricity
2.1 Electricity in Ancient Times
2.1.1 Electric Fish
2.1.2 Atmospheric Electricity by Lightning
2.1.3 Static Electricity from the Amber
2.2 Static Electricity
2.2.1 Electroscope
2.2.2 Electrostatic Generator
2.2.3 Leiden Jar for Collecting Electricity
2.2.4 Collecting Electricity from Lighting with Leiden Jar
2.3 Luigi Galvani
2.3.1 Animal Electricity
2.3.2 Metallic Current
2.3.3 The Most Capital Experiment of Electrophysiology
2.3.4 Galvani´s Achievement
2.4 Electrophysiology
2.4.1 Quantitative Measurement of Biological Current
2.4.2 Measurement of Action Potential
2.4.3 Speed of Propagation of the Nervous Signal
2.4.4 First Measurement of the Time Course of the Action Potential
2.4.5 Local Current Theory
2.4.6 All-or-Nothing Character
2.4.7 Electrical Discharge of a Single Nerve Fiber Under the Physical Stimulus
2.4.8 Hodgkin-Huxley Model
2.4.9 Patch-Clamp for Ion Channels
2.5 Measurement of Bioelectricity
2.6 Stimulations with Electricity and Magnetism
3 Theoretical Progress in Electricity
References
Part I: Electricity Within the Human Body
2: Nervous System
1 Human Body Systems
1.1 Systems for Maintaining the Body Structure
1.2 Systems for Supplying the Energy
1.3 Systems for Controlling the Body Parts
1.4 Systems for Survival
2 Classification of Nervous System
2.1 Functional Classification of the Nervous System
2.2 Structural Classification of the Nervous System
3 Central Nervous System
3.1 Cerebrum
3.2 Cerebellum
3.3 Diencephalon
3.4 Brainstem
3.5 Spinal Cord
4 Peripheral Nervous System
4.1 Cranial Nerves
4.2 Spinal Nerves
4.3 Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
References
3: Neurons at Rest
1 The Neuron
1.1 Structure of a Neuron
1.2 Types of Neurons
1.2.1 Functional Types of Neurons
1.2.2 Structural Types of Neurons
1.3 Analogy of Neurons to Electrical Circuit Components
1.3.1 Dendritic Summation
1.3.2 Analog to Digital Conversion
1.3.3 The Capacity of a Neuron and the Brain
1.3.4 Coding Strategy of Digital Pulses
2 Membrane of the Neuron
2.1 Structural Characteristic of the Membrane
2.1.1 Double Layer Structure
2.1.2 Embedded Ion Channels
2.2 Capacitance of Membrane
2.3 Resistance of Membrane
3 Ion Distribution Across the Membrane
3.1 Diffusion Gradients
3.2 Potential Gradients
4 Membrane Potentials
4.1 Nernst´s Potential
4.2 Goldman Potential
4.2.1 Equivalent Electrical Circuit Model
5 Ionic Currents in Resting State
5.1 Ionic Current by the Difference of the Resting Potential from Its Nernst Potential
5.2 Active Transport of Ion Pumps
5.3 Affecting Factors for Resting Potential
6 Membrane Potentials to Subthreshold Stimulation
6.1 Distributed Electrical Equivalent Model
6.2 Steady-State Potential of Stimulating Current
6.3 Membrane Potential to Step Current Stimulation
References
4: Action Potential
1 Potential Variation During Action Potential
1.1 Types of Membrane Potential Variation
1.2 Time Course of Action Potential Variation
1.3 Recording of Action Potential
2 Design of Experiments for the Hodgkin-Huxley Model
2.1 Space Clamp
2.2 Voltage Clamp
2.3 Total Membrane Current During the Voltage Clamp
2.4 Separation of Ionic Current
3 Quantitative Modeling of Ion Conductances
3.1 Modeling of Potassium Ion Conductance
3.2 Modeling of Sodium Ion Conductance
3.3 Constants of the Model
4 Action Potential with the Hodgkin and Huxley Model
4.1 Generation of Action Potential
4.2 Comparison with the Experimentally Measured Waveform
4.3 Refractory Period
4.4 Reestablishment of Ion Concentrations
5 Voltage-Gated Ion Channels
5.1 Types of Ion Channels
5.2 Structure of Voltage-Gated Ion Channels
6 Interpretation of Action Potential
6.1 Positive and Negative Feedback
6.2 Threshold for the Generation of Action Potential
6.3 Key Points of the Hodgkin and Huxley Model
References
5: Propagation and Processing of Membrane Potentials
1 Propagation of Action Potentials
1.1 Passive Propagation and Regeneration
1.1.1 Types of Nerve Fibers
1.1.2 Passive Propagation of Action Potential Along the Axon Fiber
1.1.3 Regeneration
1.2 Conduction Speed of Action Potential in the Unmyelinated Fiber
1.3 Propagation of Action Potential in the Myelinated Axon
1.3.1 Conduction Speed of the Myelinated Axon
1.3.2 Comparison of Conduction Speed
1.4 Myelination as an Evolutionary Success
1.4.1 Demyelination of Axon
2 Synaptic Transmission
2.1 Signal Transmission in the Synapse
2.2 Neurotransmitters
2.3 Metabotropic Receptors
2.4 Neuromuscular Junction
2.5 Electrical Transmission Between the Neurons
2.6 Synapse as an Evolutionary Success
3 Processing in the Dendrite and the Soma
3.1 Postsynaptic Potentials
3.2 Propagation of Postsynaptic Potential Along the Dendrite
3.3 Summation of Dendrite Potentials
3.4 Dendrite Computation
References
6: Sensory Receptors
1 Properties of Sensory Receptors
1.1 Sensory Receptors as Transducers
1.2 Types of Sensory Receptors
1.3 Characteristics of Sensory Receptors
1.3.1 Labelled Line Principle
1.3.2 Sensory Neural Coding Strategies
1.3.3 Adaptation to Stimuli
2 Mechanical Receptors
2.1 Touch Receptors
2.2 Baroreceptors
2.3 Auditory Receptors
2.4 Vestibular Receptors
2.5 Receptors in the Muscles
2.6 Kinesthetic Receptor
3 Chemical Receptors
3.1 Taste Receptors
3.2 Olfactory Receptors
3.3 Pain Receptors
3.4 Chemoreceptors for the Regulation of Ventilation
4 Thermal Receptors
4.1 Locations of Thermoreceptors
4.2 Types of Thermoreceptors
4.3 Polymodality of Thermoreceptors
4.4 Sensing Mechanism of Temperature
4.5 Temperature Regulation in Hypothalamus
5 Light Receptors
5.1 Rods and Cones
5.2 Phototransduction
References
Part II: Electricity from the Human Body
7: Electrocardiogram
1 History of ECG
1.1 The First Human ECG
1.2 Discovery of ECG Mechanism
1.3 Standard 12-Lead ECG
2 Generation of ECG
2.1 Evolution of the Human Heart
2.2 Conduction of Action Potential in the Heart
2.3 Cardiac Pacemaker Potential
2.4 Action Potential in Cardiac Muscles
3 Recording of ECG
3.1 Cardiac Vector Equivalent to Potential Distribution
3.2 Standard Limb Leads
3.3 Normal ECG Waveform
3.4 ECG Recording Leads
3.4.1 Central Terminal and Unipolar Leads
3.4.2 Precordial Leads
3.4.3 Augmented Limb Leads
3.4.4 Standard 12-Lead System
3.5 ECG Electrodes
3.6 Types of ECG Recording
4 Diagnosis with ECG
5 Hear Rate Variability
5.1 HRV and Autonomic Nervous System
5.2 HRV Recording Durations
5.3 Time-Domain HRV Parameters
5.4 Frequency-Domain HRV Parameters
5.5 Nonlinear HRV Parameters
5.6 HRV Parameters in Applications
References
8: Electrical Signal from the Brain
1 History of Brain Electrical Signals
1.1 Historical Recording of EEG
1.1.1 First Record of Brain Electrical Current
1.1.2 First Record of Human EEG
1.2 Historical Recording of MEG
1.2.1 First Record of MEG
1.2.2 MEG Using Optically Pumped Magnetometer (OPM)
2 Generation of Brain Electrical Signals
2.1 Electric Current Generated in the Cerebral Cortex
2.2 Spatial Summation of EPSP
2.3 Types of Brain Electrical Signals
3 Recording of EEG
3.1 Electrode Placement System for EEG Recording
3.2 EEG Montages
3.3 Electrodes Measuring EEG
4 Spontaneous EEG
4.1 Spectral Bands of EEG Signal
4.2 EEG Activities During a Night Sleep
5 Evoked and Event-Related Potentials
5.1 Evoked Potentials
5.1.1 Visual Evoked Potential (VEP)
5.1.2 Signal Averaging
5.1.3 Auditory Evoked Potential (AEP)
5.1.4 Somatosensory Evoked Potential (SEP)
5.2 Event-Related Potentials (ERP)
5.2.1 P50 Wave
5.2.2 N100 Wave
5.2.3 P200 Wave
5.2.4 N200 Wave
5.2.5 P300 Wave
5.2.6 N400 Wave
5.2.7 P600 Wave
6 Magnetoencephalogram (MEG)
6.1 MEG Signal
6.2 MEG Sensors
6.2.1 Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID)
6.2.2 Optically Pumped Magnetometer (OPM)
6.3 Comparison of MEG and EEG
7 Diagnosis and Applications
7.1 EEG in Clinical Diagnosis
7.2 EEG and MEG as Research Tools
References
9: Electrical Signals from the Muscles and Nerves
1 Electromyogram (EMG)
1.1 Types of Muscles
1.2 Structure of Skeletal Muscles
1.3 Generation of Muscle Contraction
1.4 Motor Unit
1.4.1 Motor Unit Recruitment
1.5 Types of Muscle Contraction
1.6 Recording of EMG
1.7 Application of EMG
2 Electroneurogram (ENG)
2.1 Nerve Conduction Study
3 Electrooculogram (EOG)
3.1 Generation of EOG
3.2 Recording of EOG
3.3 Eye Movements
3.3.1 Saccadic Movement
3.3.2 Nystagmus
3.3.3 Rapid Eye Movement During Sleep
4 Electroretinogram (ERG)
4.1 History of ERG
4.2 ERG Wave Components
4.3 Full-field ERG
4.4 Multifocal ERG
4.5 ERG Electrodes
5 Electrogastrogram (EGG)
5.1 Gastric Electrical Activity
5.2 Recording of EGG
6 Electrodermal Activity (EDA)
6.1 Sweat Gland
6.2 Nervous Control of EDA
6.3 Recording of EDA
6.4 Tonic and Phasic Components of EDA
6.5 Application of EDA
References
10: Brain-Computer Interface
1 Overview of BCI
1.1 History of BCI
1.2 Need of BCI Systems for the Locked-In Syndrome
1.3 Types of BCI Systems
2 Invasive BCIs
2.1 BCI Using Intracortical Electrodes
2.2 BCI Using ECoG
3 Noninvasive BCIs Using EEG
3.1 Slow Cortical Potential (SCP)-Based BCI
3.2 P300-Based BCI
3.3 SSVEP-Based BCI
3.4 Motor Imagery-Based BCI
3.5 Hybrid BCI
4 Data Processing in BCI
4.1 Preprocessing of Raw Data
4.2 Feature Extraction and Selection
4.3 Classification
4.4 Deep Learning Approaches
5 Application of BCI
5.1 BCI Systems for the Patients
5.2 BCI Systems for the General Population
References
11: Authentication with Bioelectrical Signals
1 Types of Authentication
1.1 Knowledge-based Authentication
1.2 Possession-based Authentication
1.3 Biometric Authentication
1.4 Multifactor Authentication
2 Required Properties as a Biometric Authentication Item
3 Biometric Authentication
3.1 Biometric Authentication Using Anatomical Items
3.1.1 Fingerprint
3.1.2 Iris
3.1.3 Face
3.1.4 Hand Geometry
3.1.5 Retinal Scan
3.1.6 Hand Blood Vessels
3.2 Biometric Authentication Using Behavioral Items
3.2.1 Signature
3.2.2 Voice
3.2.3 Gait
3.2.4 Keystrokes
4 Authentication Using ECG
4.1 Characteristics of ECG as an Authentication Item
4.2 ECG Leads for Authentication
4.3 Structure of Authentication System Using ECG
4.4 ECG Features for Authentication
4.4.1 Features from the Fiducial Points of ECG Waveform
4.4.2 Features by Modeling ECG Waveform
4.4.3 Features from Dimension Reduction of ECG Waveform
4.4.4 Features from the Transform of ECG Waveform
4.5 Deep Learning for ECG Authentication
4.6 Matching the Features
4.7 Performance of Authentication Based on ECG
5 Authentication Using EEG
5.1 Properties of EEG as an Authentication Item
5.2 Tasks for EEG Acquisition
5.3 Structure of Authentication System Using EEG
5.4 Features Selection for Authentication Using EEG
5.5 Matching the Features for Authentication Using EEG
5.6 Performance of Authentication Based on EEG
6 Multi-factor Authentication Using Biological Signals
References
Part III: Electricity Toward Human Body
12: Electrical Heart Stimulations
1 Artificial Cardiac Pacemaker
1.1 Brief History of Artificial Cardiac Pacing
1.2 Stimulations for Cardiac Pacing
1.2.1 Stimulations for Temporary Cardiac Pacing
1.2.2 Stimulations for Permanent Cardiac Pacing
1.3 Artificial Pacemaker Device
1.3.1 Pulse Generator of Artificial Pacemaker
1.3.2 Leads of Artificial Pacemaker
1.3.3 Battery of Artificial Pacemaker
1.4 Modes of Cardiac Pacing
1.4.1 NBG Coding System
1.4.2 Asynchronous Pacing
1.4.3 Single-Chamber Pacing
1.4.4 Dual-Chamber Pacing
1.4.5 Rate Adaptive Pacing
1.5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging Compatibility
1.6 Leadless Artificial Pacemaker
2 Cardiac Defibrillator
2.1 Brief History of Defibrillator
2.2 Indications for Defibrillation
2.3 Generation of Electrical Shock Pulse
2.4 Types of Defibrillators
2.4.1 Manual Defibrillator
2.4.2 Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator
2.4.3 Subcutaneous Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator
2.4.4 Automated External Defibrillator
References
13: Electrical Brain Stimulations
1 Brief History of Brain Electrical Stimulation
2 Deep Brain Stimulation
2.1 Mechanism of Deep Brain Stimulation
2.2 Indications for Deep Brain Stimulation
2.3 Components of Deep Brain Stimulation Device
2.4 Stimulating Pulse Patterns
2.5 Battery for DBS
2.6 Technologies for Target Placement
2.7 Future Directions and Concerns
3 Electroconvulsive Therapy
3.1 Indications for Electroconvulsive Therapy
3.2 Mechanism of ECT
3.3 ECT Procedure
3.4 Electric Properties of ECT
4 Transcranial Direct-Current Stimulation
4.1 Indications for tDCS
4.2 Mechanism of tDCS
4.3 Procedures for tDCS
5 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
5.1 TMS as a Diagnostic Tool
5.2 Indications for Therapeutic TMS Treatment
5.3 Mechanism of TMS
5.4 TMS System
5.5 Stimulating Pulse Protocols for rTMS
6 Comparison of Brain Stimulation Methods
References
14: Sensing by Electricity
1 Brief History of Sensing by Electricity
1.1 History of Artificial Hearing
1.2 History of Artificial Vision
2 Human Hearing System
2.1 Sound That Humans Can Hear
2.2 Sound Transmission in the Auditory System
2.3 Sound Processing in the Cochlea
2.4 Hearing Loss and Indication for Cochlear Implant
3 Cochlear Implant System
3.1 Functional Architecture of Cochlear Implant
3.2 Sound Processor of Cochlear Implant
3.3 Electrodes of Cochlear Implant
3.4 Pulse Parameters for Loudness Control
3.5 Effectiveness of Cochlear Implant
3.6 Electroacoustic Stimulation
4 Human Visual System
4.1 Light that Humans Sense
4.2 Retina
4.3 Visual Pathway
5 Visual Prostheses
5.1 Retinal Prosthesis
5.2 Indications for Retinal Implants
5.3 Visual Prostheses at Other than Retina
5.4 Retinal Implant Systems
5.5 Spatial Resolution for Prosthetic Vision
References
15: Electrical Stimulation of Nerves and Muscles
1 Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)
1.1 Electrical Activation of Muscles
1.2 FES for Foot Drop
1.3 FES for Upper Limb Movement
1.4 FES for Ambulation
1.5 Functional Electrical Stimulation Therapy (FEST)
1.6 Electrical Muscle Stimulation
2 Electrical Stimulation for the Restoration of Body Function
2.1 Phrenic Nerve Stimulation
2.2 Gastric Stimulation
2.3 Hypoglossal Nerve Stimulation
3 Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS)
3.1 Vagus Nerve
3.2 Vagal Nerve Stimulation for the Epilepsy
3.3 Vagal Nerve Stimulation for the Depression
3.4 Transcutaneous Vagus Nerve Stimulation
3.5 VNS and Electroceutical
4 Electrical Stimulation for Pain Relief
4.1 Spinal Cord Stimulation
4.2 Mechanism of Pain Relieving
4.3 Finding the Location for Electrical Stimulation
4.4 Stimulating Electrodes
4.5 Stimulating Parameters
4.6 Current Trends and Future Directions
5 Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS)
5.1 Types of Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation
5.2 Indication of TENS
6 Sacral Nerve Stimulation
6.1 Micturition Reflex
6.2 Mechanism of Sacral Nerve Stimulation
6.3 Sacral Nerve Stimulation Device
References
16: Biological Effects of Electricity and Electromagnetic Field
1 Physiological Effect of Current
1.1 Current Perception Threshold
1.2 Threshold of Reaction Current
1.3 Threshold for Pain Sensation
1.4 Let-Go Current
1.5 Respiration Paralysis
1.6 Ventricular Fibrillation
1.7 Electrical Burns
1.8 Stun Gun and Taser Gun
1.9 Lethality of Electricity
2 Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Field
2.1 Electromagnetic Field
2.2 Ionization Effect in Ionizing EM Waves
2.3 Current-Inducing Effect in Low-Frequency EM Waves
2.4 Thermal Heating Effect in Radiofrequency and Microwave EM Waves
2.5 Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)
2.6 Complications with Increased Body Temperature
2.7 Photochemical Effect of Light
2.8 Biological Effect and Health Effect of EMF
3 Nonthermal Biological Effects of Nonionizing EMF
3.1 Cancers and Brain Tumors
3.2 IARC Classification
3.3 Reproduction and Fertility
3.4 Neurological Problems in Children
3.5 Electromagnetic Hypersensitivity
3.6 Beneficial Effect of Electromagnetic Field
3.7 Cause-Effect Relation
References
Index